1. Conceptualizing Overtourism

1.1. Defining Overtourism

Overtourism refers to a condition in which the scale and concentration of tourism exceed a destination’s environmental, infrastructural, or social capacity, resulting in negative impacts on residents, visitors, and the site itself. While tourism growth has historically been associated with economic development, recent research emphasizes that excessive visitor density can undermine both quality of life and long-term destination sustainability (Peeters et al., 2018; UNWTO, 2018).

Unlike earlier frameworks such as carrying capacity, overtourism places greater emphasis on lived experience and perception. It is not defined solely by visitor numbers, but by how tourism is distributed across space and time, and how it is experienced by local communities. This includes congestion, reduced access to public space, behavioral conflicts, and declining resident satisfaction (UNWTO, 2018).

Recent literature also frames overtourism as a governance challenge. Rather than a purely quantitative issue, it reflects the interaction between global tourism demand and local regulatory capacity. In many cities, tourism growth has outpaced planning systems, producing localized pressures that are difficult to manage through traditional policy tools alone (OECD, 2020).

1.2. Structural Drivers of Overtourism

The rise of overtourism is closely linked to broader transformations in global travel. Increased affordability of air transport, expansion of low-cost carriers, and the growing influence of digital platforms have significantly increased mobility while concentrating demand in a relatively small number of highly visible destinations (UNWTO, 2018).

At the same time, tourism systems are often reactive rather than proactive. Policy frameworks frequently struggle to keep pace with rapid increases in visitor flows, particularly in cities with globally recognized cultural assets. This contributes to spatial concentration, where a limited number of iconic sites absorb the majority of tourism activity (OECD, 2020). These dynamics are evident across major urban destinations such as Barcelona, Venice, and Paris, where overtourism has been associated with congestion, housing pressures, and resident dissatisfaction (Peeters et al., 2018).

1.3. Relevance to Kyoto

Kyoto reflects many of the structural characteristics identified in overtourism research, making it a useful case for examining the phenomenon in a heritage city context. Its global visibility, combined with a dense concentration of culturally significant sites, generates sustained and highly concentrated visitor demand.

As a result, Kyoto experiences not only high overall visitor volumes but also pronounced spatial clustering in districts such as Gion, Higashiyama, and Arashiyama. This concentration amplifies pressure on infrastructure, public space, and residential communities, while reinforcing the city’s economic dependence on tourism.

Positioning Kyoto within this framework allows overtourism to be analyzed not simply as a function of visitor numbers, but as an interaction between global demand, urban form, and cultural significance. This case study therefore examines how these dynamics manifest across three key dimensions: visitor behavior in culturally sensitive districts, infrastructure and transportation strain, and broader impacts on community well-being.

2. Overtourism in Kyoto: Context and Heritage Significance

2.1. Historical Context and Tourism Growth

Kyoto, located in the Kansai region of Japan, served as the nation’s imperial capital for more than a millennium, from 794 until 1868, and remains a central hub of Japanese cultural heritage. This long historical continuity has produced an exceptionally dense concentration of heritage assets, including over 1,600 Buddhist temples, hundreds of Shinto shrines, historic palaces, traditional gardens, and preserved urban districts. Many of these are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, reflecting their global cultural significance (UNESCO, 2024).

Tourism in Kyoto has expanded steadily over recent decades, shaped by globalization, improved international mobility, and national tourism promotion strategies. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, Kyoto recorded approximately 53 million visitors in 2019 (Japan National Tourism Organization, 2024–2025). Although visitor numbers declined sharply during the pandemic, recovery was rapid, with totals again exceeding 50 million by 2023 (Japan National Tourism Organization, 2024–2025).

By 2024, Kyoto recorded approximately 56.06 million visitors, including 10.88 million international tourists. Overnight stays reached roughly 16.3 million, with roughly half attributed to foreign visitors (Kyoto News Plus, 2025). This marks a notable shift toward inbound tourism dependence, particularly in a city whose global appeal is closely tied to cultural heritage. Available tourism data indicates that international visitors are primarily concentrated from East Asia, North America, and Europe, reflecting Kyoto’s position within global cultural tourism networks (Kyoto City, 2024b).

Tourist activity remains highly concentrated in a limited number of districts. Sites such as Kiyomizu-dera, Kinkaku-ji, and Fushimi Inari Taisha, along with neighborhoods including Gion and Arashiyama, experience intense daily visitor flows that often exceed the city’s resident population of approximately 1.4 million during peak seasons. These patterns generate significant pressure on transportation systems, infrastructure, and public space, particularly during cherry blossom and autumn foliage periods (OECD, 2020).

2.2. Significance of Cultural Heritage Sites

Kyoto’s cultural heritage sites function not only as tourist attractions but also as active spaces of religious practice and cultural continuity. Temples such as Kiyomizu-dera, Kinkaku-ji, and Fushimi Inari Taisha remain integral to both local spiritual life and national identity.

Historic districts such as Gion and Higashiyama represent forms of “living heritage,” where traditional urban environments continue to support everyday cultural practices. Machiya, or traditional wooden townhouses, are a defining architectural feature of these areas, characterized by narrow facades, deep interiors, and mixed residential-commercial use. These structures support local businesses, teahouses, and cultural institutions while maintaining historical urban form.

These districts are also closely associated with geiko and maiko traditions. Geiko (the Kyoto term for geisha) and maiko (apprentices) are highly trained practitioners of traditional arts, including dance, music, and formal hospitality. Their activities are embedded within specific neighborhoods and depend on controlled, semi-private environments. Increased tourism has disrupted these conditions, particularly through intrusive photography and crowding (Kageyama, 2024; The Guardian, 2024). Cultural production in these areas also includes traditional crafts such as textile weaving, ceramics, lacquerware, and confectionery production, many of which are tied to local identity and intergenerational knowledge transfer.

At the same time, Kyoto’s heritage sites contribute to Japan’s global cultural image and soft power. Soft power refers to a country’s ability to shape international perceptions and influence through cultural appeal rather than coercion. Kyoto’s temples, rituals, and historic landscapes play a significant role in attracting global audiences and reinforcing Japan’s cultural presence internationally (UNESCO, 2024).

This dual role, as both lived space and global symbol, creates an inherent tension between accessibility, preservation, and economic use. The same visibility that drives tourism demand also increases pressure on the cultural systems that sustain these sites.

3. Impacts on Local Communities and Public Spaces

3.1. Disruption to Daily Life and Community Dynamics

Overtourism in Kyoto significantly affects the daily lives of local residents, particularly in districts such as Gion, Higashiyama, and Arashiyama. Narrow streets and pedestrian zones designed for local use frequently become congested with visitors, making routine activities such as commuting, shopping, and attending school more difficult. In peak seasons, buses serving these areas are often too crowded for residents to board, forcing longer travel times or route adjustments (Kyoto City, 2024a; OECD, 2020).

Behavioral issues further strain interactions between residents and visitors. Reports from local authorities and media document repeated incidents of tourists engaging in intrusive photography, particularly targeting geiko and maiko in Gion, sometimes obstructing their movement or entering private alleyways to capture images (Kageyama, 2024; The Guardian, 2024). In response, parts of Gion have implemented restrictions on photography in private streets, reflecting the extent to which everyday cultural practices have been disrupted. These examples illustrate how tourism pressure extends beyond congestion to affect privacy, cultural norms, and the functioning of residential space.

These disruptions extend into broader economic and social dynamics. While tourism generates revenue, it also contributes to rising housing costs and shifts in neighborhood composition. The expansion of short-term rentals and tourism-oriented businesses has been associated with reduced housing availability in central districts and increasing property values, trends observed in Kyoto as well as in comparable tourism-intensive cities (Gurran & Phibbs, 2017; OECD, 2020). At the same time, commercial activity increasingly caters to visitors, with a visible shift toward souvenir shops, short-term dining options, and experience-based services in heavily visited areas.

Survey data from Kyoto City indicates that residents are aware of this trade-off. While many acknowledge the economic benefits of tourism, a substantial proportion report concerns about overcrowding and declining living conditions in central neighborhoods (Kyoto City, 2024a). This combination of physical congestion and economic restructuring contributes to a perceived loss of control over local space.

As a result, some communities experience forms of functional displacement, where residents remain physically present but face increasing difficulty accessing services, navigating public space, or maintaining traditional patterns of daily life. This reflects a broader shift in which residential neighborhoods are gradually reoriented toward tourism consumption.

3.2. Challenges in Maintaining Public Spaces

The strain on Kyoto’s public infrastructure is substantial. Parks, streets, and pedestrian pathways frequently experience overcrowding, resulting in physical wear, sanitation challenges, and increased maintenance demands. Public transportation systems, particularly buses serving major tourist corridors such as those linking Kyoto Station to Kiyomizu-dera and Gion, often operate at or beyond capacity during peak periods (OECD, 2020).

Municipal responses have focused on managing behavior and movement rather than restricting access. One of the most visible initiatives is the “Mind Your Manners” campaign, which promotes responsible tourist conduct through multilingual signage, posters at bus stops and train stations, announcements on public transportation, and informational materials distributed through hotels and tourism offices (Kyoto City, 2024b). The campaign addresses specific issues such as blocking narrow streets, photographing geiko without consent, improper disposal of trash, and carrying large luggage on crowded buses. These measures are designed to intervene at the point of contact between tourists and public space, emphasizing behavioral change rather than formal enforcement.

In addition to awareness campaigns, Kyoto has introduced localized measures such as restricted access to certain private streets in Gion and increased signage directing visitors along designated walking routes. However, enforcement remains limited. The physical layout of historic districts, which are characterized by narrow streets and mixed residential-commercial use, makes consistent monitoring difficult, while the scale of daily visitor flows exceeds available staffing capacity. As a result, many policies rely on voluntary compliance rather than strict regulation.

The concentration of visitors in specific locations further intensifies pressure on shared spaces. Areas such as the approach to Kiyomizu-dera and the Arashiyama bamboo grove experience continuous, high-density foot traffic throughout the day, requiring ongoing investment in pavement maintenance, waste management, and crowd control infrastructure.

These spatial pressures also shape patterns of commercial activity. Businesses cluster in high-traffic areas to capture tourist demand, leading to the expansion of souvenir shops, food stalls, and short-term retail in already congested zones. This reinforces a cycle in which economic incentives draw more activity into the same limited spaces, increasing congestion while reducing the availability of services oriented toward residents. Over time, this contributes to the transformation of public space from mixed-use environments into primarily tourism-oriented corridors.

3.3. Broader Implications for Community Well-Being

The disruption of daily life and strain on public spaces have broader implications for community well-being. When public areas become consistently overcrowded, residents experience reduced accessibility, longer commute times, and a diminished sense of control over their immediate environment.

These pressures can also affect institutional and community life. Reports indicate that some schools and organized groups have adjusted schedules or routes to avoid peak congestion in heavily visited districts, particularly during high tourism seasons (Asahi Shimbun, 2025). In certain cases, educational activities and local events are relocated or timed strategically to minimize interaction with large tourist flows, reflecting the extent to which tourism reshapes the use of urban space beyond individual inconvenience.

At the neighborhood level, persistent crowding and commercialization can weaken social cohesion. As businesses increasingly cater to short-term visitors, residents may find fewer services oriented toward daily needs, contributing to a sense of displacement even without physical relocation. This dynamic is especially pronounced in historic districts where residential and cultural functions are closely intertwined.

The interaction between tourist demand and resident needs highlights the structural nature of overtourism. It is not solely a question of individual behavior, but a broader urban governance challenge involving land use, infrastructure capacity, and economic incentives. Addressing these issues requires coordinated strategies that extend beyond localized interventions, integrating transportation planning, tourism management, and community engagement.

Overtourism in Kyoto therefore operates across multiple dimensions, reshaping public space, altering community dynamics, and influencing institutional life. These impacts provide a critical foundation for understanding the municipal strategies examined in Section 4.

4. Business and Economic Impacts of Overtourism

4.1. Sectoral Growth and Tourism-Driven Revenue

Tourism plays a central role in Kyoto’s local economy, generating substantial revenue across hospitality, retail, transportation, and cultural industries. According to Kyoto City tourism reports, total tourism consumption reached approximately ¥1.6 trillion in 2023, equivalent to roughly $10–11 billion USD depending on exchange rate fluctuations, reflecting a strong recovery following the COVID-19 pandemic (Kyoto City, 2024b). This spending supports a wide network of businesses, including hotels, ryokan, restaurants, retail shops, and tour operators.

Growth has been particularly pronounced in the international tourism segment. Data from the Japan National Tourism Organization indicates that inbound visitors to Japan tend to spend significantly more per capita than domestic travelers, with average per-visitor spending exceeding ¥200,000, or approximately $1,300–1,400 USD, in recent years (JNTO, 2024–2025). In Kyoto, the increase in overnight stays, especially among foreign visitors, has contributed to higher total tourism receipts and greater demand for accommodation and services.

Retail businesses located near major attractions have expanded in response to this demand. Souvenir shops, traditional craft retailers, and food vendors have adapted their offerings to appeal to short-term visitors. Transportation providers, including railways and bus systems, have also experienced increased ridership linked to tourism flows. Together, these trends position tourism as a primary driver of economic activity and employment within the city.

4.2. Uneven Distribution of Economic Benefits

Despite overall revenue growth, the economic benefits of tourism are unevenly distributed. Districts located near major heritage attractions such as Kiyomizu-dera, Fushimi Inari Taisha, and Gion capture a disproportionate share of visitor spending due to consistently high foot traffic. These areas function as concentrated tourism economies, while other neighborhoods experience more limited direct benefits.

This spatial concentration creates localized economic imbalances. Businesses in high-traffic areas benefit from steady demand, while those outside major tourism corridors may struggle to compete. At the same time, rising commercial rents and property values in central districts increase operating costs for both businesses and residents.

It is important to note that the costs associated with overtourism are also spatially concentrated. Congestion, infrastructure strain, and public service pressures are most intense in areas that attract the highest number of visitors. However, these localized pressures still generate broader citywide effects. Increased municipal spending on infrastructure maintenance, transportation management, and tourism regulation affects overall budget allocation, while rising property values in central districts can influence housing markets beyond immediate tourist zones (OECD, 2020).

4.3. Business Adaptation and Market Shifts

Businesses in Kyoto have adapted significantly to changing tourism demand. Restaurants often adjust menus to accommodate international visitors by offering simplified or globally recognizable options. Retail stores increasingly focus on portable, souvenir-oriented goods rather than products designed for long-term local use. Cultural activities such as tea ceremonies, kimono rentals, and guided tours have been formalized into structured, bookable experiences that can accommodate large numbers of visitors.

Short-term rental platforms, particularly Airbnb and similar services, have also reshaped the accommodation sector. While these platforms increase lodging capacity, they can reduce the availability of long-term housing in central districts. Research on urban tourism markets shows that the conversion of residential properties into short-term rentals contributes to rising rents and reduced housing supply (Gurran & Phibbs, 2017). In Kyoto, this has prompted regulatory responses aimed at limiting the expansion of unlicensed accommodations.

These shifts alter the composition of local commercial environments. As businesses increasingly cater to visitors, everyday services such as grocery stores, local restaurants, and community-oriented shops may decline in central areas. Over time, this reduces the functional diversity of neighborhoods and reinforces their dependence on tourism-related activity.

4.4. Economic Risks and Long-Term Sustainability

The growing reliance on tourism introduces measurable economic vulnerabilities. During the COVID-19 pandemic, inbound tourism to Japan declined by more than 95 percent in 2020 compared to 2019 levels, leading to a sharp contraction in tourism-dependent sectors (UNWTO, 2021). In Kyoto, where local tourism consumption had previously reached approximately ¥1.6 trillion, this collapse translated into significant revenue losses for hotels, restaurants, and transportation providers, as well as reduced municipal tax income linked to tourism activity. The speed and scale of this decline illustrate the extent to which Kyoto’s economy is exposed to external shocks in global mobility.

Beyond external shocks, the spatial overconcentration of tourism creates longer-term structural risks. High visitor density in districts such as Gion, Arashiyama, and Higashiyama contributes to congestion that can diminish the overall visitor experience. Survey data from Kyoto City indicates that overcrowding, particularly on public transportation and in heritage areas, is among the most frequently cited concerns by both residents and visitors (Kyoto City, 2024a). Negative visitor experiences may reduce repeat visitation and weaken Kyoto’s competitiveness relative to other cultural destinations.

Sustained overuse of infrastructure also generates rising maintenance and management costs. Heavily trafficked streets, transit systems, and public facilities require more frequent repair and staffing, increasing fiscal pressure on local government. These costs are not fully offset by tourism revenue, particularly when spending is concentrated in specific districts or sectors. As a result, the financial benefits of tourism are uneven, while the costs of infrastructure upkeep and crowd management are more broadly distributed across the city (OECD, 2020).

Maintaining long-term economic stability therefore requires a shift from volume-based growth toward managed sustainability. Policies that redistribute visitor flows geographically, reduce peak-time congestion, and encourage longer stays with higher per-visitor spending are increasingly central to Kyoto’s tourism strategy. Without such adjustments, continued growth in visitor numbers risks undermining both the economic value of tourism and the cultural assets on which it depends.

The economic structure of tourism in Kyoto is closely intertwined with its social and cultural effects. Patterns of commercial concentration in districts such as Gion and Higashiyama not only shape visitor behavior but also intensify pressure on infrastructure and residential life. As tourism-oriented businesses expand, everyday services decline, reinforcing the transformation of these areas into visitor-dominated spaces.

This dynamic illustrates that overtourism is not solely an issue of visitor numbers or economic growth, but of how economic incentives reshape urban space and community life. Understanding this linkage is essential for evaluating policy responses, which must address both economic and social dimensions simultaneously.

5. Municipal Strategies for Managing Overtourism

Kyoto’s approach to overtourism is built on a multi-layered governance framework involving behavioral regulation, transportation restructuring, spatial redistribution, and coordinated policy planning between Kyoto City, Kyoto Prefecture, and tourism administrative bodies such as the Kyoto City Tourism & MICE Office. Rather than relying on strict visitor caps, the city prioritizes soft regulation, education-based interventions, and infrastructure adaptation to manage concentrated visitor flows (Kyoto City, 2024b).

5.1. Regulatory Measures and Visitor Behavior Management

Kyoto’s regulatory approach focuses on managing tourist behavior in culturally sensitive districts such as Gion, Higashiyama, and Arashiyama. The “Citizen Attitude to Kyoto Tourism Survey” identifies congestion, inappropriate behavior, and disruption of daily life as persistent resident concerns, particularly in narrow residential streets where tourism and daily life overlap (Kyoto City, 2024a).

In response, Kyoto has implemented non-punitive behavioral governance strategies. The “Mind Your Manners” campaign promotes respectful conduct in heritage areas through multilingual signage, visitor education materials, and collaboration with local businesses. This reflects Kyoto’s emphasis on encouraging voluntary compliance rather than strict enforcement mechanisms (Kyoto City, 2024b).

In specific districts such as Gion, additional localized measures have been introduced to protect cultural practices, particularly those involving geiko and maiko. These include restricted access areas and guidelines discouraging intrusive photography. These policies are designed to preserve living cultural heritage while maintaining public access (Kageyama, 2024; The Guardian, 2024).

Rather than relying heavily on penalties, Kyoto’s governance model emphasizes prevention and early-stage behavioral shaping before visitors arrive in the city, an approach consistently highlighted in municipal tourism planning documents (Kyoto City, 2024b).

5.2. Transportation Management and Infrastructure Adaptation

Transportation congestion is one of the most frequently identified impacts of overtourism in Kyoto. The Citizen Attitude Survey reports that bus overcrowding in central tourist corridors is a major source of resident dissatisfaction (Kyoto City, 2024a). This is particularly pronounced during peak tourism seasons such as cherry blossom and autumn foliage periods.

To address this, Kyoto City has implemented several transportation management strategies. These include express bus routes designed to bypass congested areas, improved coordination of bus frequency during peak seasons, and increased integration between bus and rail systems (Kyoto City, 2024c). These express services, initially introduced seasonally, have been expanded in scope to operate more consistently in response to sustained demand pressures.

Kyoto has also promoted “hands-free tourism” to reduce congestion caused by luggage on public transport. This includes expanded coin locker availability and luggage delivery services aimed at reducing strain on buses and trains. These measures are part of broader efforts to improve mobility efficiency in high-density tourism zones (Kyoto City, 2024b).

In parallel, Kyoto Prefecture has promoted regional dispersion strategies such as the “Go Around Kyoto” initiative, which encourages tourists to visit destinations outside the city center. This policy is intended to reduce pressure on core heritage areas while distributing tourism benefits more evenly across the prefecture.

5.3. Data-Driven Governance and Resident Feedback

Kyoto’s tourism management system relies heavily on continuous data collection and resident feedback. The “Citizen Attitude to Kyoto Tourism Survey” serves as a key policy instrument, capturing public sentiment regarding both the benefits and burdens of tourism (Kyoto City, 2024a).

Survey findings consistently show a dual perception of tourism. While residents acknowledge tourism’s contribution to economic activity, they also report concerns about congestion, transportation strain, and disruptions to daily life. These findings are used to inform seasonal policy adjustments and targeted interventions in high-pressure districts. Kyoto City integrates survey data into cross-departmental decision-making processes involving tourism, transportation, and urban planning divisions. This coordinated governance model is explicitly outlined in Kyoto’s tourism policy documentation and reflects an attempt to balance economic and social priorities (Kyoto City, 2024b).

5.4. Spatial Redistribution and Regional Tourism Development

A central strategy in Kyoto’s overtourism management is the redistribution of visitor flows away from highly concentrated heritage sites. Kyoto Prefecture and Kyoto City jointly promote regional tourism initiatives that encourage travel to less-visited cultural and natural destinations outside central Kyoto.

This includes the development of alternative tourism routes, rural cultural experiences, and educational travel programs for school groups. These initiatives are designed to reduce pressure on iconic sites while extending economic benefits to surrounding municipalities (Kyoto City, 2024c).

School travel programs in particular are increasingly directed toward regional destinations such as agricultural communities and smaller cultural sites. This reflects a broader policy shift toward integrating tourism with educational and regional development goals rather than concentrating it in urban heritage zones.

5.5. Policy Outcomes and Structural Constraints

Kyoto City’s seasonal tourism management reports indicate that crowd control measures implemented during peak periods, particularly during cherry blossom and autumn foliage seasons, have produced localized improvements in congestion management (Kyoto City, 2025a, 2025b). Measures such as temporary traffic restrictions, increased staffing, and targeted visitor guidance have reduced overcrowding in specific corridors and time windows. However, these improvements remain uneven and limited to highly managed districts, rather than producing sustained citywide effects.

Despite these interventions, structural challenges persist. Kyoto’s reliance on voluntary behavioral compliance, combined with the global visibility of its cultural heritage sites, constrains the effectiveness of regulatory measures. High-demand locations such as Gion and Kiyomizu-dera continue to experience concentrated visitor flows, particularly during peak travel seasons. As a result, current policies tend to alleviate congestion in targeted areas and time periods, but do not substantially reduce total demand or shift visitor concentration at a broader scale.

5.6. Conclusion: Policy Implications and Future Directions

Kyoto’s approach to overtourism reflects a governance model grounded in soft regulation, infrastructure adaptation, and spatial redistribution. Municipal strategies have focused on managing visitor behavior, improving transportation systems, and encouraging dispersion beyond heavily concentrated districts. These efforts have produced measurable improvements in specific contexts, particularly during peak tourism seasons, and demonstrate a high degree of coordination across city and prefectural institutions (Kyoto City, 2024b, 2025a, 2025b).

At the same time, the persistence of congestion in core heritage areas highlights the structural limits of this approach. Policies aimed at influencing behavior and redistributing flows can moderate pressure, but they do not fundamentally alter the underlying drivers of overtourism. Kyoto’s global visibility, combined with the symbolic concentration of cultural value in sites such as Kiyomizu-dera, Fushimi Inari Taisha, and Gion, continues to generate sustained and spatially concentrated demand. As a result, current measures tend to improve conditions at specific times and locations rather than fully resolving systemic pressures.

Looking forward, Kyoto’s “Kyoto Tourism 2030” plan provides a more comprehensive framework for addressing these challenges. The plan emphasizes sustainable tourism development through several key priorities: improving resident quality of life, enhancing visitor experience, promoting longer stays and higher-value tourism, and strengthening regional dispersion across Kyoto Prefecture (Kyoto City, 2024c). Notably, the plan places greater emphasis on shifting from quantity to quality in tourism strategy, including encouraging off-peak travel, expanding alternative destinations, and integrating tourism more closely with local community needs.

These priorities align with broader international practices in high-density tourism cities such as Barcelona and Amsterdam, where policy has increasingly shifted toward demand management rather than continued growth (Peeters et al., 2018). In Kyoto’s case, this suggests several forward-looking policy implications, including continued investment in transportation diversification and real-time congestion management to reduce pressure on bus-centered systems.

Expanding incentives for geographic dispersion, particularly through the promotion of lesser-known cultural and rural destinations, can help redistribute both visitor flows and economic benefits. At the same time, strengthening regulation of short-term rentals and land use in high-pressure areas may mitigate housing pressures and neighborhood change (Gurran & Phibbs, 2017). Finally, deeper integration of resident feedback into policy design will be essential for maintaining public support and long-term social sustainability.

Importantly, Kyoto’s current trajectory reflects a deliberate attempt to balance economic vitality with cultural preservation and community well-being. The city has avoided highly restrictive measures such as tourist caps, instead prioritizing education, coordination, and gradual system adjustments. While this approach has limitations, it also reflects the practical and political realities of managing tourism in a globally significant heritage city.

Overall, Kyoto illustrates both the challenges and possibilities of governing overtourism in the contemporary urban context. Its experience suggests that no single policy instrument is sufficient. Instead, effective management requires a layered strategy that combines behavioral interventions, infrastructure planning, economic diversification, and long-term vision. The Kyoto 2030 framework represents a meaningful step in this direction, signaling a shift toward more sustainable and integrated tourism governance that may serve as a model for other heritage cities facing similar pressures.